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Memorise shorts

Full written answers to memorise for Studies of Religion II. These answers use Pope John XXIII, Saturday/Sunday worship and bioethics for Christianity, and Ashoka, pilgrimage and bioethics for Buddhism. If your class studied a different person, practice or ethical area, use them as a guide to length and structure and swap in your own evidence.

Christianity

Which answer to use (match the question to a memorised answer):

Contribution of John XXIII (5 marks)

Pope John XXIII (pope 1958–1963) contributed to the development of Christianity by calling the Second Vatican Council and by opening the way to unity among all Christians. He announced the Council on 25 January 1959 and opened it on 11 October 1962, declaring that the Church "prefers to make use of the medicine of mercy rather than that of severity", beginning a renewal (aggiornamento) of Christian life. He then made Christian unity a priority, grounded in Christ's prayer "that they may all be one" (John 17:21). He founded the Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity on 5 June 1960, and that December he received Archbishop Geoffrey Fisher, the first meeting between a pope and an Archbishop of Canterbury since the Reformation. As a result, Orthodox, Anglican and Protestant churches sent observers to the Council. Finally, he developed Christian teaching on peace: in Pacem in Terris (1963), addressed to "all Men of Good Will", he taught that peace must be "founded on truth, built up on justice, nurtured and animated by charity". He thus set Christianity on a path of renewal, unity and peace.

Impact of John XXIII (5 marks)

John XXIII's impact on Christianity has been very great, shaping its worship, its unity and its witness to the world. The Council he called renewed worship: its liturgy constitution (Sacrosanctum Concilium, 1963) opened the way to the vernacular, so lay people could participate actively. His priority of unity transformed relations between the churches. Unitatis Redintegratio declared that "the restoration of unity among all Christians is one of the principal concerns of the Second Vatican Council"; in 1965 Catholic and Orthodox leaders removed the excommunications of 1054 "from memory"; and the 1999 Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, signed by Lutherans and Catholics and later affirmed by Methodist, Anglican and Reformed churches, resolved a central dispute of the Reformation. His impact is honoured beyond Catholicism: the Episcopal Church commemorates him, teaching that the Council transformed the church "not only for Roman Catholics, but for all Christians". Canonised in 2014, his call to dialogue continues in Pope Leo XIV's appeal to "build bridges through dialogue and encounter". Overall, he reshaped Christian worship and unity to a very great extent.

Bioethics: two ethical teachings (8 marks)

Two ethical teachings that guide Christians in bioethics are the sanctity of life and love of neighbour, which Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant Christians share.

The first teaching, the sanctity of life, holds that human life is a sacred gift because "God created man in his own image" (Genesis 1:27), and it is protected by the commandment "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13). Applied to euthanasia, this means that deliberately ending a life is wrong. The Catholic Catechism teaches that direct euthanasia "is morally unacceptable" (CCC 2277); the Russian Orthodox Church "cannot recognise as morally acceptable" attempts to legalise euthanasia (Basis of the Social Concept, 2000); and the Anglican Lambeth Conference (1998) resolved that euthanasia "is neither compatible with the Christian faith nor should be permitted in civil legislation". Yet life need not be prolonged at any cost: Lambeth distinguishes euthanasia from "withholding, withdrawing, declining or terminating excessive medical treatment", so death is accepted, not intended.

The second teaching, love of neighbour, comes from Jesus' command, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Matthew 22:39), and is modelled by the Good Samaritan, who "was moved with compassion… and took care of him" (Luke 10:33–34). This guides Christians to accompany the dying with palliative and pastoral care rather than hasten death. It also supports organ donation, which the Catechism praises as "a noble and meritorious act" (CCC 2296) and the Orthodox Church calls "a manifestation of love spreading also to the other side of death", echoing "Greater love has no one than this" (John 15:13).

Together, these teachings give clear and compassionate guidance: the sanctity of life sets the limit, while love of neighbour sets the motive. As euthanasia is legalised in a growing number of countries, and although some Protestant churches leave more to individual conscience, these teachings guide Christian adherents to a very great extent.

Saturday/Sunday worship: significance and how it expresses beliefs (8 marks)

Saturday/Sunday worship is the most significant weekly practice in Christianity because it expresses the central belief in the resurrection and gathers believers into one community of faith. Most Christians worship on Sunday because Jesus rose "very early on the first day of the week" (Mark 16:2), and the early Church met "on the first day of the week, when the disciples were gathered together to break bread" (Acts 20:7). Seventh-day Adventists keep Saturday as the Sabbath, a memorial of creation, so both days express belief in God as Creator and Redeemer.

Each part of the service expresses belief. In the reading and preaching of Scripture, and in the Creed professed in many churches, Christians express belief in the authority of the Bible and in God as Trinity. In Holy Communion, also called the Eucharist or the Lord's Supper, they obey Jesus' command, "Do this in memory of me" (Luke 22:19), proclaiming his saving death and resurrection. The ecumenical Lima text calls the Eucharist "the sacrament of the gift which God makes to us in Christ" (Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, 1982); Catholics and Orthodox believe Christ is truly present, while many Protestants emphasise a memorial.

For the individual, it is a weekly source of grace and identity: hearing Scripture and receiving communion renew faith and guide moral life, and John Paul II called Sunday "Easter which returns week by week" (Dies Domini 1). For the community, it builds unity: "we, who are many, are one body; for we all partake of the one loaf of bread" (1 Corinthians 10:17). The dismissal then sends believers out to serve, since "you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to me" (Matthew 25:40).

Therefore, Saturday/Sunday worship is significant to a very great extent, because it expresses the heart of Christian belief and sustains both personal faith and the life of the whole Church.

Buddhism

Which answer to use (match the question to a memorised answer):

Contribution of Ashoka (5 marks)

Emperor Ashoka (r. c. 268–232 BCE) contributed to Buddhism by turning the Dhamma into public policy after his conquest of Kalinga. His Rock Edict 13 records that "one hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed", that he felt "deep remorse", and that "conquest by Dhamma" is "the best conquest". He then expressed Buddhist compassion (karuna) through state welfare: Rock Edict 2 provides "medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals", with wells dug and trees planted along roads. He appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to "work among all religions" (Rock Edict 5) and taught that whoever condemns another's religion "only harms his own religion" (Rock Edict 12). Finally, he developed pilgrimage: his tour to Sambodhi (Bodh Gaya) "instituted Dhamma tours" (Rock Edict 8), and his Lumbini pillar marks the place where "the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyans, was born". Ashoka thus made non-violence, compassion and pilgrimage public expressions of Buddhism.

Impact of Ashoka (5 marks)

Ashoka's impact on Buddhism has been profound across all its major traditions. In his own time, royal support helped Buddhism develop from a regional movement into a widespread tradition: Rock Edict 13 records that "conquest by Dhamma" had been won "as far as Tamraparni" (Sri Lanka) and where "the Greek king Antiochos rules". In Theravada Buddhism, tradition honours his son Mahinda for bringing the Dhamma to Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan Buddhists celebrate this every June at the Poson festival. In Mahayana Buddhism, the Sanskrit Ashokavadana, translated into Chinese, made him the model of the righteous Buddhist king (dharmaraja), and Emperor Wu of Liang in China (r. 502–549) modelled his rule on Ashoka. The sites he honoured, Bodh Gaya and Lumbini, remain the heart of pilgrimage for Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists alike. Today his ethic of non-violence and compassion inspires engaged Buddhists, and the wheel from his Sarnath Lion Capital appears on India's national flag. Overall, Ashoka shaped how Buddhism is lived and spread to a very great extent.

Bioethics: two ethical teachings (8 marks)

Two ethical teachings that guide Buddhists in bioethics are the First Precept and the teaching that karma is determined by intention, both shared by Theravada and Mahayana Buddhists.

The first teaching, the First Precept, is the commitment to abstain from taking life, which flows from the principle of non-harm (ahimsa). The Buddha taught: "All tremble at violence… Putting oneself in the place of another, one should not kill nor cause another to kill" (Dhammapada 129–130). In bioethics, this guides most Buddhists to reject euthanasia, because it involves deliberately ending a life, and to regard abortion as a serious act of taking life. In Japanese Mahayana Buddhism, some adherents perform the mizuko kuyo ritual after an abortion, which acknowledges its karmic seriousness while showing compassion to the parents.

The second teaching is karma, which the Buddha defined by intention: "Intention, I tell you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect" (Anguttara Nikaya 6.63). Because "Mind precedes all mental states" (Dhammapada 1), Buddhists judge medical decisions by their motive. Ending a life out of aversion to suffering creates unwholesome karma, whereas palliative care that relieves pain without intending death is wholesome. This teaching works alongside compassion (karuna): the Metta Sutta urges Buddhists to "cherish all living beings", as a mother protects her child, which encourages hospice care and allows organ donation to be seen as generosity (dana), although some Tibetan teachers are cautious about disturbing the body after death.

Together, these teachings give Buddhists clear guidance in principle: the precept sets the limit, intention is the test and compassion is the motive. With no central authority, adherents across all schools apply them personally, guided by monks and teachers, so the guidance is consistent in principle yet flexible in practice. As euthanasia is legalised in a growing number of countries, these teachings guide Buddhist adherents in bioethics to a considerable extent.

Pilgrimage: significance and how it expresses beliefs (8 marks)

Pilgrimage is highly significant in Buddhism because it expresses the Three Jewels (Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha) and the belief that enlightenment is possible, while deepening individual faith and uniting the Buddhist community. The practice rests on the Buddha's own words: "There are four places, Ananda, that a pious person should visit and look upon with feelings of reverence" (DN 16). These are Lumbini, where he was born; Bodh Gaya, where he became enlightened; Sarnath, where he first taught; and Kusinara, where he passed away. Visiting them is an act of refuge in the Buddha.

Each site expresses a belief. At Bodh Gaya, pilgrims meditate beneath the Bodhi tree, expressing the belief that awakening comes through effort, since "You yourselves must strive; the Buddhas only point the way" (Dhammapada 276). At Sarnath they honour the Dhamma by recalling the Four Noble Truths, and at Kusinara they reflect that "All conditioned things are impermanent" (Dhammapada 277). Rituals such as circling stupas clockwise, offering flowers that wilt as a reminder of impermanence (anicca), and giving dana to monks express respect for the Sangha.

For the individual, pilgrimage turns doctrine into lived experience, deepening mindfulness and generating merit. The Buddha taught that whoever dies on such a pilgrimage "with his heart established in faith" will be "reborn in a realm of heavenly happiness" (DN 16). For the community, pilgrimage supports the Sangha and creates unity, as Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana pilgrims gather at the same sites. Ashoka's tour to Sambodhi (Rock Edict 8) shows how ancient this tradition is.

Buddhists who cannot travel to India or Nepal share in its meaning by venerating stupas and relics in their own temples, from Sri Lanka to Japan. Therefore, pilgrimage is significant to a very great extent, because it expresses Buddhism's core beliefs and strengthens both individual faith and the global Sangha.

Each answer presents the tradition as a whole, noting diversity between denominations or schools where it matters. Quotes are from the World English Bible, Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and ecumenical documents (vatican.va, mospat.ru, the Lambeth Conference, the World Council of Churches), and verified translations of Buddhist texts and Ashoka’s edicts (accesstoinsight.org).